12 archetypal flavors of Maqam
Within the wide family of modal systems found across North Africa, the Balkans, and Western and Central Asia, which we have defined as the transcultural maqām on the basis of both the building-block principle of melodic construction and a shared nomenclature derived from medieval systematist theories, we can observe a number of modal structures recurring across these regions.
Since the building blocks that form these modes can be combined in an almost infinite number of ways, rather than attempting to classify all possible modes, in this project we will attempt a transcultural classification of their most archetypal building-block structures. These archetypal structures should carry as their defining characteristics all aspects of the fourfold definition of musical modality proposed by Trần Văn Khê: (1) the notes used, (2) their roles and hierarchy within the tone group, (3) the typical melodic motives, and (4) the extra-musical meanings, ethos, and conceptual baggage associated with them, including poetic themes and related associations.
At first glance, this raises a question: how can characteristics and associations that pertain to a complete mode be attributed to a building block that constitutes only a part of the mode? The answer lies in the concept of the core building block, which exists under different names and in different forms across all the modal systems considered here. A mode will consist of several building blocks, some of which may have the same tonal character, simply transposed to a different register, while others may have a different one. The building block on which the modal performance ends, and in most cases also begins, is nevertheless understood as the core building block: the one that establishes the modal identity of the entire performance, including all of the relational meanings associated with the mode.
Terminology
In Arabic theory, the term jins refers primarily to the first of these aspects, and is traditionally limited to the pitches between two tonal centers, forming a tetrachord, pentachord, or, in the specific case of Segāh, a trichord, although the expanded definitions proposed by Farraj and Abu Shumays on Maqamworld.com take into account all pitches relevant to the jins beyond this strict n-chord definition.
In Persian theories, by contrast, the melodic motives (guše) are placed in the foreground, while tone groups are more loosely defined, and although Persian theory offers a more elaborate vocabulary of tonal functions and hierarchical roles than Turkish and Arabic theories, these functions are temporary and change constantly during the course of a modal performance, making them unsuitable as part of a structural definition of the modal building block.
A new term is therefore needed that clearly encompasses all four aspects, and after considering the available possibilities, we have settled on flavor, from the Turkish çeşni, meaning flavor, flavoring, or spice, a term already in use in Turkish makam theory that comes closest to the intended meaning.
The classification into exactly 12 units is just one of many possible approaches; an argument could easily have been made for any number between approximately 10 and 20, but 12 seems to offer a relatively good compromise while also serving as a nod to the original 12 maqāms of the systematist school. Ultimately, whichever route is taken, a number of inconsistencies are inevitable; in the appendix, we will attempt to address the most apparent discrepancies in this systematization and explain the reasoning behind some of the (perhaps) more controversial decisions.
As a methodology, available modal classifications in national theory books, which deal mostly with the modes of “classical” maqām forms, were consulted and compared with YouTube recordings of both classical and more village- and folk-oriented genres from these countries; all consulted theoretical sources are listed at the end of the article. Particular attention was given to existing classifications of building-block types: in his book on Turkish makam, Karl Signell identifies six basic and six lesser tetrachords; Habib Hassan Touma lists eight main ajnas of the Arabic maqām; Salah al-Mahdi gives twelve ‘uqūd of Tunisian Maluf; Dariush Talai lists four main dāng-hā of Persian dastgāh; and Zhou Ji identifies six tetrachord types in Uyghur Muqam (see below for a comparison of these classifications with the 12-flavor system).
In the difficult task of assigning transculturally appropriate names to the flavors, we drew on widely used nomenclature while avoiding mode names with too many divergent tonal iterations across traditions; where this was unavoidable, we adhered to the earliest documented names given by Urmawī and Shīrāzī, as available in Owen Wright’s The Modal System of Arabian and Persian Music, A.D. 1250–1300.
The color-number combinations, modeled on those used in public transportation maps, are well-established aids to memorization and have proven immensely useful pedagogically.
Each flavor is introduced as follows: (1) its number, color, and transcultural name; (2) its pitch content based upon the C-Rast master-scale (more on the master-scale in later articles); (3) a short explanation of its tonal hierarchies; (4) where applicable, subtypes and special variants with slightly different pitch content that were deemed either too rare, or insufficiently distinct to constitute separate flavors; (5) a list of named modes (from national theoretical sources) in which the flavor appears as a base building block; (6) a small selection of characteristic motives as illustration; (7) historical information on when and where the tone group was first mentioned in theoretical sources, as well as the referential meanings associated with it in medieval writings on modal ethos or in later poetic contexts; and (8) links to video examples of musical performances from different regions and genres. In these examples, the given flavor either forms the base building block of the mode, or appears as a secondary building block in a particularly noteworthy manner
.
Tone Group:
major tetrachord (occasionally pentachord) with a II-III interval smaller than I-II. The I-III interval anywhere between 350 and 386 cents (wusta on III). Clear focal role of the I. II and (LT) gravitate towards the I. Both III and IV relatively stable.
Other Variants:
“upper Rast” - IV as a tonal center, III and V gravitate towards it
“shortened upper Rast” - same, but I no longer present
“Eastern Rast” - Found in Central Asian systems. “Darker” in character, I-III interval lesser than 350 ct. Marked with a dark red color
Prevalence:
Turkish makams featuring this flavor in an opening and/or cadential role include: Rast, Sazkâr, Rehavi, Pesendide, Yegâh, Nisâburak. Featured as a base flavor in the following common Arabic maqams: Rāst, Kirdān, Suznāk, Suzdalāra, Yekāh, Māhūr, Maylīs Afrūz; Iraqi maqams: Rāst, Sharqī Rāst, and Panjgāh; as well as the following common qit‘as: Khalīlī, Māhūrī, Zanbūrī. Featured in the following Libyan/Tunisian tubu: Rasd al-Dhīl, Asbahān, Māya, Dhīl (III in the Tunisian version of Dhīl is tuned higher than in other tubu, closer to the 386-cent just-intonation third).
In the Persian radif, this flavor is rare, but it could be heard (or at least hinted at) in a cadence in Āvāz-e Afshārī, with the heavy emphasis on the V, and an extremely sparse usage of the I despite the gravitational pull in its direction.
Rost is one of the 6 maqoms of the Bukharan Šašmaqom tradition, with “Eastern Rast” as its main flavor. This Central Asian version is also featured in the Uyghur Muqam Panjigah, as well as in some sections of the Fargana-Tashkent Maqom Dugoh Hosayni.
Some Melodic Archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Introduced as a tetrachord in Ptolemy’s Harmonies in its 204-182-112 form (natural third). In the arborescent model of the Arab hermeneutic tradition, the trichord of Rast is considered the father of all modes. It stands at the root of a transmodal tree, and all other modes are derived from it. It is named after the note Rāst (just, straight) which is the first note on the open string position. It was connected to the zodiac sign of Taurus and concepts of sun, stability, strength, order, masculinity, and comfort.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entries for Arabic ajnas RAST, UPPER RAST and JIHARKAH with sound examples
SHARQI RAST (Farida and Iraqi Maqam Ensemble)
GARDUNI ROST (Omnibus Ensemble Tashkent)
DUGOH XOSAYNIY (Shamsiddin Nuriddinov)
AVAZ-e AFŠARI (Eqbal Azar and Abdolhoseyn Shahnazi)
RAST (Vartan Magrosiyan)
KALAJDŽISKO ORO (Sadilovci)
RAST SAZ SEMAI - D. CANTEMIR (Ensemble Hesperion XXI)
Tone group:
minor tetrachord or pentachord with a I-II interval smaller than III-IV. I-II interval anywhere between 112 and 182 cents (wusta on II). Clear focal role of the I. II and (LT) gravitate towards the I. II is often lower in the cadential descent. III relatively stable. IV can take a focal role, and extend upwards into NAWA. If V (Husseini-note) is present, it gravitates strongly towards IV . Some theories separate Husseini (the pentachord) from Bayati/Uşşak (the tetrachord) into separate flavors.
Theoretical models of the I-II interval tuning:
112 ct (classified as nawruz in al-Risāla al-sharafiyya): darker in color, tonally close to KURD. Often heard in Kurdish and Turkmen folk music
136 ct (given by H. Farhat as an approximate tuning of šur, D. Talai gives 140 cents): the interval in use in Persian classical and folk music
150 ct (a Zalzalian second, as documented in Kitāb al-mūsīqī al kabīr): today the first interval in Arabic jins bayati
182 ct (a “small” whole tone 10:9, mentioned as husayni in some interpretations al-Risāla al-sharafiyya, possibly erroneously): lighter in color, tonally close to NAWA. Today the first interval in cins uşşak in Turkish classical music. Turkish folk music uses flexible tuning, that is usually much lower in practice, closer to šur
Prevalence:
Found in the Arabic maqams: Bayātī, Husaynī, Bayātī Shūrī, Muhayyar, Bayātī ʿUshayrān, Husaynī ʿUshayrān, Nahāwand, Iṣfahān, Nawā, ʿArāq, ʿArazbār; Turkish makams: Uşşak, Bayati, Hüseyni, Muhayyer, Gülizar, Neva, Nişabur, Tahir, Acem, Hisar, Arazbar, Sipihr, and Nevruz; as well as Iraqi maqams: Bayat, Bheirzawi, Ibrahimi, Juburi, Mahmudi, Mischin, Mugabl, Nari, Sharqi Dogah (bayati tetrachord), Husseini; Arwah; Orfa; Dasht (husseini pentachord). It is also present in the following common qit‘as: Quriyat, Nari, Aboush, Alizabar, Hijaz Gharib, Qariabash, Qazaz, Ushiash, Omar Gala, and Zaza.
It is known as the primary mode of Šur in Persian and Azerbaijani radif/mugham, and remains the main flavor of Persian Dastgāh-e Šur (clear presence of the tonic), Āvāz-e Abū ʿAṭā (emphasis on the 4th degree), and Āvāz-e Daštī (emphasis on the 5th degree). It is featured in numerous guše-hā.
According to al-Mahdi, Tunisian Maluf differentiates between the tuning in Nuba ʿIrāq (closer to uşşak) and Ḥsīn/Ramāl al-Māya (closer to bayati). Ḥsīn is also found in Constantine Maluf as well as the Gharnati tradition of Tlemcen (there under the name ʿIrāq Maṭlūq). These two are the only documented and classified instances of surviving non-tempered intervals in Algerian music theory.
It is the opening flavor of the Uyghur Muqam Iraq of the On-Ikki Muqam tradition, with the “nola” (drifting tone) on II.
It is also among the most prevalent flavors in Balkan, Turkish, Ashik, Turkmen, and Kurdish folk music.
Some Melodic Archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Documented as a diatonic tetrachord by Didymus in the 1st Century AD (in the tuning of nawruz). Listed as one of the 12 primary modes in the medieval theories. In the hermeneutic tradition, often named as the mother of modes. Named after the Note Husseini (derived from a personal name of an unknown origin), the 6th degree of the diatonic scale. It was connected to the zodiac sign of Scorpio and concepts of moon, femininity, melancholy, passion, and love.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic jins BAYATI with sound examples
ISTIKHBAR ARAQ MATLUQ (Rifat and Anis Khalfat)
SUR TESNIFLERI (Elmira Rahimova)
ARAKA TAROUBAN (Ahmed Ellouz)
KERTAM (Hayk Ghevondyan)
QIYNAMASANGCHI (Abror Zufarov)
MARKIZAT (Ashug Nusret)
Tone group:
a trichord with the dual tonic relationship. I as the “segah tonic”, with VI (I of RAST) as the “implied tonic”. II and III gravitate towards I, however I feels incomplete and bound to the implied rast tonic. In Serbian theory, Segah is called Tercni dur (“tertian” major). According to medieval Arab arborescent schema, SEGAH is derived from RAST. One of the defining characteristics is the distict lack of the note below segah tonic (II of RAST).
There is rarely a tetrachord variant (which is what differentiates it from a Phrygian tetrachord (KURD), instead, III typically extends upwards to a whole other tetrachord (III-IV-V-VI), which can be HIJAZ, HUSSEINI, MAHUR, NAWA, ČAHARGAH or RAST.
Tuning of the I-II interval anywhere from 100 to 160 ct (100 in most equal-tempered systems, 112 in Turkish segah, 150 in Arabian sika, ca. 160 in Persian segah, as given by Farhat)
Other variants:
Musta’ar: II is a semi-tone higher (would be F# in the above example). Marked with a salmon color as a cross between Segah (pink) and Muwwal (orange). In Balkan, it often extends upwards to NIKRIZ
Iraq: a tetrachord with a three-quarter tone at I-II, whole tone at II-III and a three-quarter tone at III-IV. It is prominent in the medieval theories but relatively rare in the present. Colored pink as SEGAH when the upper tonal center (node) lies at III; or yellow-green as ČAHARGAH if the node lies at IV
A pentatonic scale of a semi-tone, whole-tone, major-third, semi-tone, major third that is sometimes heard in Central Asian music also exhibits characteristics of Segah
Prevalence:
Specific melodic characteristics of SEGAH are found in Arabic maqams: Huzzām, Sīkāh, ʿIrāq, Bastanigār, Awj ʿIrāq, Mustaʿār. Iraqi maqams: Segah, Hakimi, Afshar, Awj, and Bakhtiyari; Turkish makams: Segâh, Müstear, Hüzzam, Eviç, and Bestenigâr; Tunisian and Algerian tab: Sīkāh. Main flavor in Azerbaijani mughams Xaric Segah, Zabul Segah, and Mirzə Hüseyn Segah, as well as in Persian Dastgāh-e Segāh. Also featured in parts of Āvāz-e Afshārī. It appears in Fergana-Tashkent Maqom Chorgoh, and in Dugoh of Bukharan Šašmaqom. Some elements of it are observable in Uyghur Muqams Ajem, Bayat, and Nava. It is also a common melodic characteristic in Balkan folk music.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Introduced in medieval theories as one of 24 sub-modes, while ʿIrāq, also known as Rū-ye ʿIrāq, was given as one of the 12 primary modes. Named after the note Segāh (Persian: third position), the neutral III of the diatonic scale (with the note ʿIrāq being the neutral VII under I). It was connected to the concepts of nostalgia, yearning, and sorrow culminating in hope. Maqām ʿIrāq was tied to the zodiac sign of Leo.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas SIKAH and MUSTA’AR with sound examples
SEGAH TESNIFI (Teyyar Bayramov)
HÜZZAM SAZ SEMAISI (Murat Salim Tokaç)
CHORGOH (Xorezm Maqom Ensemble)
GOLEMA RIDŽA TI ČINAM (Sadilovci)
MAQAM TIFLIS (Ahmet Necip)
BAKI (Alim Qasimov)
KIŠA BI PALA (Safet Isović)
DEJ MORI VASE (Raspejani Velešani - Balkan Musta’ar)
Tone group:
A harmonic tetrachord. I as the primary total center and IV as the secondary (or vice-versa, in the “Hijaz-Esfahan”). II gravitates towards I, and III towards IV
Rarely a pentachord. Instead, IV often extends into (ESFAHAN) or borders another harmonic tetrachord, the latter combination is known as Hijazkar
Other variants:
“Eastern Čahargah” - Tetrachord no. 6 in Zhou Ji’s classification of Uyghur Muqam: nola on III, with a central pitch about a three quarter-tone away from IV, always gravitates towards I, with a typical cadential move of IV-III-II-IV-I. This could also be understood as a form of SEGAH (due to the prominent role of low VI) or a completely independent flavor. Marked with a sage green color as a cross between HIJAZ (bright green) and SEGAH (pink)
“Homayun” - a melodic emphasis on the VII (a whole tone below the I), giving a temporary feeling of NIKRIZ. Marked with an emerald color as a cross between HIJAZ (bright green) and NIKRIZ (dark green)
Prevalence:
Found in Arabic maqams: Ḥijāz, Ḥijāzkār, and Zanjīrān; Iraqi maqams: Ḥijāz Dīwān, Ḥijāz Atchough, Ḥijāzkār, Humāyūn, ʿAraibūn ʿAjam, Qaṭār, Madmī, and Ḥūzāwī; Turkish makams: Hicaz, Uzzal, Zirgüleli Hicaz, Hicaz Hümâyun, Hicazkâr, Sûz-i Dil, Şedaraban, and Lâlegül; Tunisian ṭab Ramāl; Algerian ṭab Zīdān; Azerbaijani mughams Çahargah, Hümayun, and Şüştər, as well as in the Aram-e Jān section of Dugoh in the Bukharan Šašmaqom. Eastern Čahārgāh is heard in Uyghur Muqams Oššāq and Čārgāh.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Relatively modern in its current tonal form, for the history of the original flavor, see ČAHARGAH. Named after the note Hijaz (an augmented 4th degree of the master scale, Hijaz being a historical region around the city of Mecca). It was connected to the concepts of heroism, fighting spirit (Hajibeyov) and distant desert (Touma). North African Nuba Zidan is said to be associated with nobility and grandeur.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas HIJAZ and HIJAZKAR with sound examples
HARRAMT BIK NOUASI (Sheikh Ahmed Al-Lawz)
MAQAM HIJAZ ATCHUGH (Sayyid Salman Al-Musli)
DÖRT GÖZEL (Ostad Sabouhi Music Group)
MUGHAM CHAHARGAH (Alim Qasimov)
PLEVENSKO HORO (Tsvyatko Blagoev band)
SHALAKHO (Levon Madoyan)
UŠŠAQ MUQAM (Theatrical performance by Uyghur Choir and Orchestra)
Tone group:
major tetrachord (occasionally pentachord) with a II-III interval same as I-II. Clear focal role of the I. II and (LT) gravitate towards the I. Both III and IV relatively stable. First tetrachord in the Ionian and Mixolidian modes (on a Pythagorean diatonic scale)
Other variants:
“upper Mahur” - IV as a primary tonal center, III and V gravitate towards it
“shortened upper Mahur” - same, but I no longer present
A pentatonic scale of a whole-tone, whole-tone, minor third, whole-tone, minor third that is sometimes heard in Central Asian music (mode Buzruk in Uzbek Šašmaqom) also exhibits characteristics of Mahur
Prevalence:
Main flavor in Persian Dastgāh-e Māhūr and Rāst-Panjgāh; Azerbaijani mugham Rast (if performed in 12-TET tuning), Māhur-e Hindī, Orta Māhur, and Bayātī Qājār; Iraqi maqams ʿAjam, Jahārgāh, Ṭāhir, and Rāshidī; Arabic maqams ʿAjam, ʿAjam ʿUshayrān, Shawq Afzā, and Ṭarz Jadīd; Turkish makams Māhur, Acem Aşıran, Tarz-ı Nevīn, Güldeste, Sûzidilârâ, and Büzürk (but not Çargâh: while this exact tone-group and tuning is called Çargâh in Turkey, it is not the main flavor of Makam Çargâh). Furthermore, it is found in Uzbek maqoms Buzruk and Bayot, Uyghur Muqams Räk, Pänjigah, and Chebbiya(t), the majority of Sufi kalam modes, Algerian ṭubūʿ Jārka, Mazmūm, and ʿIrāq Maḥṣūr, Moroccan ṭubūʿ ʿIrāq al-ʿAjam, ʿUshshāq, and Ramāl al-Dhīl. As a direct equivalent to the Western major scale, it is also found in a wide variety of popular music genres.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Introduced by Aristoxenus (4th-Century BC). Named as one of the 12 primary maqams in the medieval theories (unter the name Oshshaq). Named after the note Mahur (an auxiliary major 7th degree of the master scale). Persian name Mahur refers to the type of a bright yellow flower. While equivalent to the Western major, its Arabic name Ajam means “from Iran”, while in Iran it is sometimes found under the names Mahur-e Hendi or Rak-e Hendi (“Indian raga”), so if this naming is any clue, this flavor may have reached Middle Eastern music from India, instead of the West. It is connected to the concepts of brightness, laughter and optimism. Oshshaq was tied to the zodiac sign of Pisces.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas AJAM and UPPER AJAM with sound examples
QATAR TESNIFI (Konul Tagiyeva)
NUBA JARKA (Beihdja Rahal)
A VILLAGE WEDDING IN NARDARAN (Alim Qasimov)
BAYOT (Ilyos Arabov)
MUQAM DOGAH (Ustad Ghulam Mohammad Saznavaz)
Tone group:
A minor tetrachord without a strong leading tone (LT). VII-I interval is always a whole tone (a “natural minor”). If no notes below I are present whatsoever, it also counts as NAWA. I-II is not smaller than a whole tone (200 ct in equal temperament or 9:8 / 204 ct in just intonation). First tetrachord in the Dorian and Aeolian modes (on a Pythagorean diatonic scale). There are no strong gravitations among the degrees.
I extends downwards into HUSSEINI or another NAWA
Prevalence:
The specific compound HUSSEINI-NAWA is a main flavor of Persian Dastgāh-e Navā and Iraqi Maqam Nawā. It is also found in Turkish makams Uşşak and Beyati, Arabic maqams Bayātī, Nawā, and Rāḥat Fāzā, as well as Tunisian ṭubūʿ Ḥsīn and Nawā. It also appears as a mode in the Arab-influenced Taarab genre of Zanzibar (Lower HUSSEINI is approximated to KURD on equal-tempered instruments, but realized as nawruz on the violin).
As a simple natural minor, it features as the main flavor in Uzbek maqoms Segoh, Iroq, Gulyar-Shahnoz, and Navo; Uyghur Muqams Segah, Ozzal, and Mushawerak; Algerian and Moroccan ṭab Ramāl al-Māya; and Azerbaijani mughams Rāhab and Navā-Nisāpur.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Tetrachord introduced by Aristoxenus (4th-Century BC). Listed as one of the 12 primary maqams in the medieval theories, in its still current form as a compound tone-group. Named after the note Nawa (5th degree of the diatonic scale - Nava meaning a tune, or melody, in Persian). It is connected to the concepts of peace, solitude, contemplation, serenity and sacredness, and was tied to the zodiac sign of Aquarius
Links to Audio Examples:
CHAHARMERZAB-E NAVA (Bahram Sadeghian)
YAL-ZARI IL BAZRINGOSH (Yusuf Omar)
FARG’ONACHA SHAHNOZ (Dilorom Abduazimova)
TASNIFI IROQ (uncredited performers)
NEVA NISAPUR (Bahram Mansurov)
LIVE IN HERTME - UNKNOWN SONG TITLE (Culture Musical Club Zanzibar)
Tone group:
A phrygian tetrachord. I as the primary total center and IV as the secondary. First tetrachord in the Phrygian and Locrian modes (on a Pythagorean master scale). (LT) or VII has no structural importance, but is much more present than in (#3-SEGAH). Many instances of KURD seem like they could be an equal-temperament adaptation of nawruz (which is very common in Kurdish music, while phrygian is not)
Other variants:
“Lami” - a locrian pentachord (IV-V a semitone), found in the Iraqi Maqam LAMI. Marked with a burnished-brown color as a cross between Kurd (brown) and some forms of Segah (pink).
Prevalence:
Turkish makams Kürdilihicazkâr, Aşk Efzā, and Acemkürdî; Arabic maqams Kurd, Ḥijāzkār Kurd, Shawq Ṭarab, and Tarz Nawīn; Iraqi maqam Kurd; Azerbaijani mughams Bayātī Kurd and Dāstī; Persian Āvāz-e Bayāt-e Kord. Sīkā (Segah) in the Constantine Maluf acts more as a KURD in practice (no reference to the VI, and a strong presence of the IV). Present in many 12-TET folk music renditions as an approximation of Nawrūz.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Introduced by Aristoxenus (4th-Century BC). Named as one of the 12 primary maqams in the medieval theories under the name Busalik (today that name refers to the Turkish Makam in the flavor of ESFAHAN. Named after the note KURD (an auxiliary minor third degree of the master scale) It is connected to the concepts of passionate romance, heartbreak, longing, and melancholy, and was tied to the zodiac sign of Capricorn. In Western Orientalism and Hollywood it carries a general symbolism of the “Oriental”, less directly tied to the Middle East and Arabia then is the case with HIJAZ
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas KURD and LAMI with sound examples
LEYLO (Koma Heray)
KÜRDÜ SHAHNAZ (Alim Qasimov)
ES MI TSAR EM TSIRANI (Ashur Jivani)
JAČE OD OKOVA (Halid Bešlić)
Tone group
A minor tetrachord with a strong leading tone (LT). VII-I interval is always a semitone (a “harmonic minor”), and must be present. I-II is not smaller than a whole tone (200 ct in equal temperament or 9:8 / 204 ct in just intonation). There are no strong gravitations among the degrees of the tetrachord itself. A pentachord variant is possible.
I extends downwards into HIJAZ or ČAHARGAH
Other variants:
“Nahawand murassa” - IV extends upwards into HIJAZ, and temporarily creates a minor pentachord with a lowered V (Db on the example above). Marked with the eggplant color as a cross between ESFAHAN (purple) and KURD (brown)
Prevalence:
Main flavor in Azerbaijani mugham Bayātī Šīrāz, Persian Dastgāh-e Bayāt-e Eṣfahān, Turkish makams Bûselik and Nihāvend-i Kebîr, Arabic maqams Nahāwand and Sulṭānī Yakāh, Iraqi maqam Nahāwand, Tunisian and Libyan Nuba Aṣbahān, and Tlemceni Istikhbar Sāhlī. Ubiquitous in Balkan folk music, especially in the HIJAZ-ESFAHAN compound (with the cadence on low V). In the less strict sense, present globally in popular music as a harmonic minor.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Named as one of the 12 primary maqams in the medieval theories (albeit with somewhat different tuning than in today’s practice). The modal ethos is tied to the feeling of dignity and quiet sadness, it was described as mystical and metaphysical (Savfat) and “bride of music” (Hajibeyov). It was tied to the zodiac sign of Gemini.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas NAHAWAND and NAHAWAND MURASSA with sound examples (note: not all examples apply to this definition of flavor Esfahan)
MUGHAM BAYATI SHIRAZ (Alim and Fergana Qasimova)
TASNIF BOT-E CHIN (Mohammadreza Shajarian)
ISTIKHBAR SAHLI (Anis and Rifat Khalfat)
MAQAM NAHAWAND (Hussein al-A'dhami)
GEL SENINLE YARIN EY SERV-I REVAN (Özdal Orhon)
DUGAMET BAYAWAN (Makit Dolan Troupe)
PENDJELIK MENDJELIK (Agapi Kazarian)
EMINA (Himzo Polovina)
GRANA OD BORA (Safet Isović)
Tone group:
A lidyan pentachord. In case of the downward motion IV sometimes tends to revert back to MAHUR.
MUWWAL is defined by the motion of the IV and its strong gravitation upwards to V, it almost always built on MAHUR trichord (two equal whole tones), but may be also built on RAST (larger and smaller whole tone), such as the case in Arabic Maqam Rahawi or Tunisian tab Rasd al-Dhīl. If the II-III interval is smaller than a three-quarter tone, this is then classified as a form of NIKRIZ
Prevalence:
Found mainly in Algeria, where it serves as the primary flavor in the ṭubūʿ Mūwāl, Dhīl, Rasd al-Dhīl, and Māya in both the Sanʿa of Algiers and the Gharnati of Tlemcen, as well as the ṭab Dhīl, Raml, and Mūwāl in Constantine Maluf. Also found in the Turkish makam Pençgâh, and as ʿAjam Muraṣṣaʿ, in a short modular excursion of the Arabic maqam ʿAjam.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Unclear historical lineage. Documented in Durrat al-Tāj but not named. Similar tonal content has been tied to a secondary mode Mobarqa. For the same reason we don’t have access to much hermeneutical data. In the Afro-andalusian tradition it was historically associated with the late-night hours and transitioning into the morning. T. Bestandji notes that the main poetic themes of Nuba Maya are “wine, the beauty of nature, regret at the end of a night of pleasure and sublimation at the first gleams of dawn”. It is also associated with the emotions of extasy and exhilaration and the feeling of awe before the divine light.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic jins AJAM MURASSA with sound examples
BACHERAF in Constantine NUBA MAYA (Hadj Mohamed Tahar Fergani)
PENCGAH TAKSIM (Niyazi Sayin)
Tone group:
A minor pentachord with the augmented IV and a semitone between IV-V. IV gravitates towards V, II and VII (LT) towards I
It is the first mode on the harmonic-type scale, with HIJAZ being the second. The tonal center can be ambiguous between I and II (“Homayun”).
Other variants:
“Neyriz”: III is higher then a semitone from the II, but smaller than a three-quarter tone. This is the first mode on the medieval Persian harmonic-type scale where ČAHARGAH would be the second. Marked with the same dark green color, as the exact tuning of the III doesnt define the flavor.
“Athar Kurd”: Nikriz with the minor II (Db in the example above). Marked with brown olive color as a cross between NIKRIZ (dark green) and KURD (brown)
Prevalence:
Turkish makams Nikrîz, Neveser, Şevk'efzâ, and Reng-i Dil; Arabic maqams Nikrīz, Nawā Athar, Ḥisār, Basandīda, and Athar Kurd. Some non-cadential motives occur in Iraqi maqam Rāshidī and Algerian Raml al-Māya, as well as in the opening motives of Iraqi, Persian, and Azerbaijani Humāyūn. This form of Homayun is widely present in Balkan folk music
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Unclear historical lineage. Neyriz was documented in Durrat al-Tāj as a secondary mode. For the same reason we don’t have access to much hermeneutical data. The modal ethos of Nikriz is described as dramatic, exhilarating, and bitter-sweet. Mugham Hümayun is tied to the feelings of sadness and grief according to U. Hajibeyov
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas NIKRIZ and ATHAR KURD with sound examples
ISTIKHBAR RAML-AL-MAYA (Anis and Rifat Khalfat)
MORI, ANO ZAFIROVA (Bojana Nikolić)
HOMAYUN (Malik Mansurov)
HOMAYUN (Alim Qasimov)
ARAPSKO KOKONJEŠTE (Serbian 7th Infantry Regiment "King Peter I" Orchestra)
Tone group:
HUSSEINI, NAWA or KURD trichord with an added diminished IV. The IV has a distinctly gestural and plaintive character and doesn’t extend into other flavors, instead the III will extend, typically to HIJAZ.
Other variants:
-”Mukhalef Kirkuk/Sharqi”- SEGAH trichord with the diminished III (above example, but without D)
-”Mo’alef” (Persian) - HUSSEINI trichord with a diminished III (above example, but with Fb in place of F).
Both marked in amaranth color, as a cross between SEGAH (pink) and SABA (maroon)
Prevalence:
Most heavily featured in the Iraqi maqam tradition, with maqams Ṣabā, Ḥadīdī, Taslīm, Manṣūrī, and Mtalātha classified by Rob Simms as belonging to the “Ṣabā family,” and Mukhalif and Mukhalif Kirkuk to the “Segāh family.” It is also present as a cadential flavor in Turkish makams Sabâ, Sabâ Zemzeme, and Zîrefkend; Arabic maqams Ṣabā (on HUSSEINI trichord), Ṣabā Zamzam (on KURD trichord), and Ṣabā Bûselik (on NAWA trichord); Yarsan-Kurdish dastgahs Šeykh Amiri, Abedini, Yadegari, Sahari, and Chapi; as well as in Ashugh folk music.
Some melodic archetypes:
History and Symbolism:
Medieval maqam Zirafkand (aka Kučak) was considered one of the 12 primary maqams in the Systematist theory and was based on a variant of the SABA tetrachord with an even lower IV (36:35 ratio, around one quarter-tone). This is the only true micro-tonal interval in maqam; in that form it survives solely in the Persian guše Mo’alef. It is connected to the concepts of pain, deep sorrow and anguish, and tied to the zodiac sign of Cancer.
Links to Audio Examples:
MAQAMWORLD.COM entry for Arabic ajnas SABA, SABA ZAMZAM, and MUKHALIF SHARQI with sound examples
MAQAM HADIDI (Shihab Ahmed al-Adhami)
SEYKH AMIRI (Ostad Elahi)
LJUBAVI SMO VREME DUGO (archive D. Dević)
BEXTÎYARÎ TANBUR SOLO (uncredited performer)
Tone group:
A harmonic tetrachord with a lowered II. I as the primary total center and IV as the secondary (or vice-versa, in the ČAHARGAH-ESFAHAN). II gravitates towards I, and III towards IV
Rarely a pentachord. Instead, IV often extends upwards into ESFAHAN, downwards, either into another ČAHARGAH, or, as into HUSSEINIbwith a emphasis on VII (Homayun) creating a temporary feeling of Neyriz
Prevalence:
This form survives only in the Persian Dastgāh. It is the main flavor in Dastgāh-e Čahārgāh, (with the downward extension into another ČAHARGAH tetrachord with an emphasis on VI), and heavily featured in Dastgāh-e Homāyūn (with a downward extension into a HUSSEINI tetrachord with the emphasis on VII). In the upward extension into a minor tetrachord, it forms ESFAHAN, the main flavor of Āvāz-e Bayāt-e Eṣfahān.
Some melodic archetypes:
see #4 HIJAZ
History and Symbolism:
Introduced by Urmawi, although the first inversion with these ratios was documented in Ptolemy’s Harmonies as the “intense diatonic tetrachord”. Given as one of the 12 primary maqams in the medieval theories (unter the name Hijaz). Named after the note Čahārgāh (a 4th degree of the diatonic scale). It is connected to the concepts of power, heroism, and festivity, and was tied to the zodiac sign of Sagitarius.
Links to Audio Examples:
DASTGAH-E ČAHARGAH (J. Shahnaz-A. Bahari)
YAR KHODA KHODA (M. Zarabi)
DASTGAH-E ČAHARGAH (D. Talai)
Tonal functions and modal ethos
Differences and similarities in regional understandings of tonal functions
1. The Turkish Makam and Arabic Maqam Systems:
Qarār (Arabic): Tonal center. Functions as an active gravitational baseline and constant reference point throughout melodic development.
Karar / Durak (Turkish): Cadential center. Functions as a formal target of terminal resolution. The melody can remain structurally independent of this pitch during specific melodic paths (seyir), engaging it primarily for final cadences.
Güçlü (Turkish) / Ghammaz (Arabic): Dominant axis, typically located a perfect fourth or fifth above the base tone.
Ghammaz: Dynamic center of gravitation and functional gateway (mizān). It serves as an explicit modulation or transfer point, shifting the melody into distinct, adjunctive upper tetrachordal or pentachordal building blocks (ajnas).
Güçlü: Primary structural node for mid-phrase tension. Rather than strictly serving as an architectural bridge to a new genus, it functions as a primary melodic anchor that sustains the trajectory (seyir) of the performance before final resolution.
2. Additional functions defined in North African Ṭab‘ Systems:
Mabda’: The designated starting or opening note of a melodic path (sayr), responsible for initiating the initial modal environment.
Markaz: Temporary, localized internal resting points ("centers" or "stations").
Unlike the fixed-position ghammaz, markaz is movable and not bound to a single scale degree.
It functions as a fluid phraseological pivot within individual melodic cells, shifting dynamically depending on the trajectory of the performance.
3. Functions of the Persian guše-ha:
Āqāz: The structural opening or incipit note of a guše, functionally analogous to the Tunisian mabda’.
Šāhed: The "witness" note, representing the most frequently repeated and emphasized dominant melodic center of a given guše.
Unlike the ghammaz, the šāhed does not necessarily function as a transfer point to an adjacent tetrachord. It is an axis of melodic intensity rather than a node.
Ist: The temporary or complete stopping tone within a given guše.
It serves as a strict, mandatory phraseological standstill point.
In performance, the ist note often shifts away from the šāhed, forcing the melody to come to a halt on a tone distinct from the primary axis of intensity.
Khātimeh (Finalis): The final cadential tone of an entire guše.
The khātimeh functions strictly as an operational termination point.
Throughout the active performance, this tone does not need to project the acoustic magnetism or structural gravity of a qarār or Western tonic; it serves as a functional cadence target where the phrase ends, independently of the šāhed.
4. Shifting degrees:
Moteqayyer / Mutaghayyir (Persian / Arabic): The variable pitch degree within a specific modal scale
Functions as an shifting scale degree whose precise tuning or pitch inflection alters microtonally or chromatically depending on whether the melodic direction is ascending or descending, typically following the direction of the movement (higher pitch in ascent, lower in descent). Directly equivalent to the VI and VII degree of the Western melodic minor scale.
Tonal functions of the 12-flavor system
Within a tone-group of the Flavor, we propose four main function-types of notes:
NODE - a stable note, usually either a primary or secondary tonal center. In the mode-building (tarkib), this note serves as a transfer point into the next building block/flavor. Conceived to be compatible with the Rhizomatic model of analysis (see the article on 4 analytical models).
GRAVITATING NOTE - an unstable note with a clear tendency towards the tonal center.
PASSING NOTE - “neither of the above” - a relatively stable note that isn’t heavily featured in the current mode/guše, and appears mostly in passing.
GESTURAL NOTE - a type of the unstable note that serves a specific expressive function, and appears in the predetermined spot within the tone group. There are two examples of this function: (1) a glissando-ing lamentative ornament with a pitch scope of up to a semi-tone (“drifting tone” in Uyghur Muqam) - found on the III in both Eastern Čahargah and Eastern Rast; (2) a wailing gesture found in Saba IV (III in Mo’alef), accompanied with a volume surge and glissando back to the lower note (Saba III or Mo’alef II). Gestural notes will be analyzed in more detail in the article on Meanings
In the Flavor system, Mutaghayyir can be understood as a temporary switch to another Flavor, therefore it is not seen as a separate function-type. It’s function within both the temporary and the home flavor is the gravitating note.
As this is system of functions inside a building-block, we do not make a distinction between tonic and dominant. This serves to accomodate the more flexible realizations of these roles: Dominant role can appear both as Ghammaz (stable dominant - a node) and Šāhed (stable or gravitating dominant - may or may not be a node). Similarly the tonic role can appear both as Arabic Qarār (a clearly apparent tonal center of the mode) and Persian Khātimeh / Turkish Karar (a cadential goal that isn’t clearly apparent as a tonal center throughout the mode). Tonic is always also a node except in the case of SEGAH. The SEGAH tonic has a special semiotic function which doesn’t quite fit into any of the above categories, as it is simultaneously gravitating towards its VI (Rast I) and being a primary tonal center (qarar) of the Segah cadence. Therefore it may signify a state of “incompleteness”. Segah tonic is almost never a node, all transfers to another building block will typically go through Segah III
Modal ethos of the 12-flavor system
The connection between a tonal structure and referential meaning of Segah is not an isolated case. As we have seen, gravitating notes exhibit varying strength of gravitational pull toward adjacent stable notes, and the direction of this pull may be either upward or downward depending on the flavor. The distribution and strength of these gravitational tendencies appear to correspond to the referential meanings associated with the respective modes: generally, downward gravitational tendencies tend to be connected to negative emotions, while upward tendencies are more often associated with positive ones. The following overview summarizes the most commonly documented modal ethe and extra-musical associations of the 12 flavors, and speculates the possible relations of these characteristics to the specific tonal structures and gravitational tendencies in each mode.
RAST: ORDER
In its original Zalzalian tuning, Rast exhibits a high degree of tonal symmetry and balance. Its third degree lies exactly between II and IV, while its pentachord forms a perfect palindrome, 1–¾–¾–1. The gravitational pull of VII toward I is likewise relatively weak, since the interval is either a major or Zalzalian second. This relative equilibrium corresponds closely to the traditional conception of Rast as a mode of stability and order, consistent with the original meaning of the name, “just” or “straight.”
MAHUR: HAPPINESS
In Mahur, a gradual increase in upward gravitational tendency can be observed. Its third degree is slightly raised and begins to exhibit an attraction toward IV, while the relationship between VII and I becomes more directional in variants where the interval is narrowed to a semitone. The mode is correspondingly associated with more uplifting qualities, including optimism and happiness.
MUWWAL: ECSTASY
This tendency is amplified further in Muwwal, where the upward gravitational component is even stronger. The added augmented fourth exerts a particularly forceful upward attraction, corresponding to the mode's associations with ecstatic exhilaration and exposure to divine light.
SABA: DESPAIR
At the opposite end of the spectrum is Saba. Here, II already exerts a moderately strong downward pull toward I, while the movement from IV toward III is exceptionally forceful and gestural. These pronounced downward tendencies are consistent with the traditional associations of Saba with hopelessness, pain, anguish, and despair.
SEGAH: LONGING
The specific feeling of incompleteness of the Segah I is mirrored in the poetic themes of nostalghia, longing or yearning for something unreachable - the lost love, childhood, forsaken homeland, etc.
HUSSEINI: PASSION
Husseini and Nawa are relatively similar in their overall character, but differ considerably in the behavior of the second degree. In Husseini, its downward attraction toward I is particularly variable, even volatile, ranging from relatively weak to strong. The mode is associated with passion and intense emotional experiences, particularly those connected with love. Its unstable second degree may therefore contribute to a sense of heightened emotional tension.
NAWA: PEACEFULNESS
Nawa, by contrast, exhibits a relatively weak gravitational profile. The fixed whole-tone interval between I and II limits the downward attraction of the latter, while the absence of a leading tone at VII further reduces directional tension toward I. This corresponds to associations of this mode with serenity, peacefulness, meditation, and solitude.
HIJAZ: TUG-OF-WAR
Hijaz contains two strong gravitational tendencies acting in opposing directions: II pulls toward I, while III pulls toward IV. The simultaneous presence of these competing attractions gives the mode a particular sense of tension and struggle. The referentiality of Hijaz has been complicated by its adoption by Orientalism, but in the medieval literatures this flavor was put in association with themes of heroism. The implication of battle and fighting could be explained by the opposing gravitational pull, which in the original tuning was weaker (the modern augmented second used to be a major second, surrounded by two zalzalian seconds). Azerbaijani Čahargah, tuned as the modern Hijaz is also connected to heroism and struggle for one’s homeland.
ČAHARGAH: VICTORY
In Persian Čahargah, the downward attraction of II is considerably weaker than the upward attraction of III. From this asymmetry we could therefore speculate a greater tendency toward upward resolution and, by extension, help account for associations with victory in addition to heroiem (implying positive outcomes of the battle). However, since Hijaz and Čahargah do not occur together within the same tradition, and stem from the same medieval mode Hijazi, there is no well-documented basis for distinguishing their respective associative meanings in this respect. Both are consequently associated with several of the same themes discussed above. One Persian source, however, associates Čahargah specifically with festivity (in addition to heroism); this celebratory aspect is not encountered in the corresponding descriptions of Hijaz in other traditions, and might confirm the more optimistic ethos of Čahargah compared to Hijaz.
NIKRIZ: BITTERSWEETNESS
Nikriz, which incorporates the characteristic Hijaz intervals within its structure, retains something of the ambivalence associated with Hijaz, while combining it with the more subdued affective character of general sadness associated with its minor-trichord basis. Its traditional descriptions tend toward a notion of bittersweetness: sadness intertwined with the recollection of happiness.
KURD: HEARTBREAK
This is another case where the available information is somewhat scarce. The associations that recur most frequently in the connection to this mode seem to circle around the themes of heartbreak, melancholy, and longing. Since some forms of Kurd can be interpreted as tempered versions of nawruz (a tuning of Husseini with a particularly low II), one might speculate to Kurd signifying a darker counterpart to the Husseini theme of love. If Nawa is connected to the absence of love and passion (itself represented in the volatile II of Husseini) in relatively positive and neutral terms, Kurd may represent its negative flipside: melancholy and emotional loss. The repeated reference to longing also points toward the often unclear boundary between Segah and Kurd, exemplified by North African versions of Sika, which occurs as a tetrachord and would, according to the classification proposed above, correspond to the Kurd flavor.
ESFAHAN: MYSTICAL SOPHISTICATION
The evidence for Esfahan is likewise more limited, with particularly relevant examples including Persian Bayāt-e Esfahan (with a Čahargah tetrachord below I) and Azerbaijani Bayati Shiraz (with a Hijaz tetrachord below I). Again as another type of Hijaz/Minor combination, some of the connotations encountered in Nikriz also appear here, particularly sadness tempered by quiet dignity and interspersed with recollections of happiness. Several Persian sources, however, additionally connect Esfahan with mystical and metaphysical experience. These associations are distinctive in the present comparison, as such explicitly mystical connotations do not appear with the same consistency in descriptions of the other modal flavors.
APPENDIX:
Reasoning behind certain choices and inconsistencies
The HUSSEINI naming issue:
The two tuning variants found on the extreme ends of the spectrum (112-182-204 and 182-112-204) sound different enough that they could warrant being separated into two flavors. These two versions of both the Nawrūz tetrachord and Ḥusaynī pentachord using the “small whole tone” both appear in interpretations of Urmawi’s writings, which have themselves been disputed as not following the neutral tuning actually used in practice. This confusion, together with the demonstrable fact that the II is flexible even within the same melody, has led to the decision to group all tunings of the II in the same flavor.
Tuning spectrum of the HUSSEINI I-II interval
This is also supported by the fact that there aren’t two separate sets of motives and poetic connotations to be found in connection with this flavor. A separation of motives does exist, but along the line of tetrachord versus pentachord. This is most strongly pronounced in the Iraqi maqam tradition, which considers the Ḥusaynī family to be separate from the Bayāt family. This particular distinction was also lost in transmission to other regions, with North African Ḥsīnī (as found in the Constantine Maluf) clearly built around the tetrachord. Therefore, this was also deemed not to be a big enough difference to warrant separate flavors.
Choosing the name has been problematic: Bayāt would be the official name in Arabic, but this word means many different things across maqam regions. Bayāt is one of the Four Maqoms of Fergana-Tashkent and would tonally belong to MAHUR, while Uyghur Muqam Bayat switches between MAHUR and Eastern Čahārgāh. In Persia, Bayāt-e is a prefix, meaning “melody of the” (for example, Bayāt-e Eṣfahān, Bayāt-e Tork, Bayāt-e Kord...).
Uşşak, or Oshāq, meaning “lovers,” is found almost everywhere as a mode/guše name, but again, refers to a wide variety of different flavors. In the medieval theories, the Oshāq tetrachord was listed as (204-204-90), and the resulting compound scale Oshāq given by Urmawi was equivalent to the Mixolydian mode (Oshāq + Nawā). It is still preserved in that form in the Andalusian-style Nuba of Morocco. The use of the names Šūr and Nawrūz is localized around Persia and Azerbaijan and isn’t commonly seen elsewhere, except in the Arabic compound Bayātī Shūrī, where the IV transfers upwards into HIJAZ instead of the usual NAWA of maqam Bayātī.
Dūgāh could be an appropriate name, as the note/function Dūgāh is the home note of the flavor, but for some reason that name has never seemed to refer to this flavor, even in the medieval books. There are very few documented modes by that name today, and of those that exist, not a single one is set in this flavor. Azerbaijani Dogah is in the flavor of MAHUR . Dugoh is also one of the six primary Bukharan maqoms (Šašmaqom), where it is set in the flavors SEGAH and HIJAZ, while Turkish makam Dügâh combines SABA and NIKRIZ.
For this reason, HUSSEINI was chosen, as it is present in most national classifications and always refers to this flavor, in spite of the pentachord/tetrachord issue and taking into account the irony of having a “Husseini tetrachord” which doesn’t have a Husseini note within itself.
The RAST-MAHUR issue:
Turkish Rast with a 5:4 natural third sounds closer to MAHUR than to Arabic Rāst with a zalzalian third. Additionally, Azerbaijani Rast shares a number of features with Turkish Rāst but is grouped with MAHUR because of the long tradition of performance in 12-tone equal temperament. So, why is Turkish Rast not also grouped with MAHUR?
Urmawi made a clear distinction between jins Rast (204-182-112) and jins Uşşāq (204-204-90), both of which were bases of primary maqams. This distinction is retained in Turkish theory, which keeps these two distinct tone groups among its six basic tetrachords (medieval Uşşāq being renamed Çargâh, while contemporary Turkish Uşşak refers to Urmawi’s Ḥusaynī, in a slight “lost in translation” moment).
Tuning spectrum of the RAST/MAHUR II-III interval
Also, Rāst has retained a symbolic meaning as the first primary mode in both Arabic and Turkish theories, so the decision was made to keep them together and leave the exact pitch of the III up to interpretation (III is lower than the III in 12-TET, but how much lower exactly makes no difference in this classification). Azerbaijani mughams Rast and Māhur are notated in 12-TET and in theory differ only in the melodic content and the key. I am not familiar enough with how the newly emerging non-tempered Mugham practice treats the III in mugham Rast, or whether it attempts to make a stronger differentiation, but as it is written in the official theory books, it belongs to the flavor MAHUR. On the other hand, Persian theory recognizes the neutral intervals and uses them elsewhere, in the modes Šur and Čahargah, yet it still makes no difference between the tuning of the III in Māhur and Rāst. Therefore, Persian Rāst undoubtedly belongs to MAHUR.
According to all common criteria, the true form of Rāst is not found in Persian Dastgāh. Still, here we have a somewhat controversial decision to view the Forūd (cadential section) of Āvāz-e Afshārī as belonging to a flavor of RAST, based on it’s Khātimeh (finalis) on Rāst I, which is used extremely sparsely in most performances. Its close Iraqi equivalent, maqam Awshār, firmly belongs to the SEGAH family, with its SEGAH trichord, upper extension into HUSSEINI (Bayātī), and references to Rāst I only in the opening, but cadencing unmistakably toward Segāh I (Rāst III). On the other hand, Persian Afshārī is constructed in the same way (SEGAH-HUSSEINI compound), but with fewer references to Rāst I during the development, and a strong šāhed function of the Rāst V (or Segāh III, if you choose to hear it as SEGAH). According to the above-stated definition of SEGAH as “yearning toward the Rāst I, but never reaching it,” the fact that it is reached in the cadence Āvāz-e Afshārī would be a key argument in favor of this decision.
Separation of NAWA and ESFAHAN:
The broader definition of jins, as not referring only to the main tone group (in this case, the minor tetrachord) but also to the leading and ornamental notes in the immediate surroundings, has opened up the possibility of separating the two versions of minor, with and without a leading tone. This is a novel concept and isn’t found in any previous theories. Perception is not much of an issue here, as the “harmonic” and “natural” minor sound completely different. It is more about bending the rules of what constitutes a building block, and according to the strict Turkish/Arabic definition of jins, it shouldn’t be possible. Persian theory is much more helpful here, as it leaves more leeway for exactly this type of situation. In Persian modes of Nawā and Eṣfahān, the tone group is extended and has the tonal center in the middle of the group. It looks something like (V)-VI-VII-I-II-III-(IV).
In both cases, VI is a neutral tone (a zalzalian third down from I), but VII in ESFAHAN is higher than in NAWA. So we have the equivalent of melodic and harmonic minor, only with the neutral VI.
This is only defined that way in Persian theory, but these two archetypes are observable in many other regions and often belong to the most important/popular modes. In jins-based theories, we can observe maqams where the minor tetrachord (Arabic: Nahāwand, Turkish: Bûselik) extends downward into HUSSEINI tetrachord (Arabic: Bayātī, Turkish: Uşşak). Turkish makams Uşşak, Beyâtî, and Arabic maqams Bayātī, Nawā, and ʿUshshāq Miṣrī, Tunisian Ḥsīn, etc. Likewise, Arabic maqams Ḥijāz, Nikrīz, and Nahāwand, as well as Turkish Bûselik and Hümâyun, all repeat the situation where the minor extends downward into HIJAZ.
From there came the idea that the minor flavor is defined by its (lack of) leading tone, as well as by the flavor attached below.
This also means that the constituent flavors of a plagal compound (HUSSEINI-NAWA) and (HIJAZ/ČAHARGAH-ESFAHAN) will be interlinked, and it will often be difficult to predict where the cadence will land on, which would be a primary criterium in naming the flavor (if a melody swithes up and down between HUSSEINI and NAWA, and cadences on Husseini IV aka Nawa I, only then can we say that we were in the mode of NAWA, whereas if it cadences down to Husseini I that makes the entire melody belong to HUSSEINI.
Here the tuning of the VII is much more crucial than the VI, so the tuning of the VI doesn’t change the meaning of the flavor. In the case of the HUSSEINI-NAWA pairing, the Persian neutral VI is maintained in the aforementioned Turkish, Arabic, and Tunisian maqams, but is lost in some other modes, such as Tlemceni Raml al-Māya, which has two consecutive minor tetrachords, or in the Zanzibar variant where the bottom tetrachord is usually realized as a Phrygian. In the ČAHARGAH-ESFAHAN pairing, Persian Čahārgāh (with the neutral VI) is turned to Ḥijāz (minor VI) virtually everywhere outside Iran. This pairing is probably the most prevalent mode of Balkan folk ballads, such as the sevdah genre.
This separation creates another problem: the forms that center on the notes above I and extend upward. These typically come in the form of a pentachord (Bûselik and Nahāwand are good examples), and would look like (VII)-I-II-III-IV-V. This could have been a separate flavor, but since they share the exact same tonality, it was decided to keep it as a form of ESFAHAN wherever the major VII is clearly heard (as in the cases of Bûselik, Nahāwand, and Iraqi Nawā), and as a form of NAWA wherever it isn’t (Raml al-Māya, Uzbek Segoh, etc.), with the acknowledgment that this may sound counterintuitive to someone familiar with Persian theory, where Eṣfahān is defined by the presence of its lower dang, Čahārgāh.
ČAHARGAH vs. Neyrīz/Nikrīz:
As stated above, ČAHARGAH is esentially a more traditional tuning of HIJAZ that is only kept in and around Persia. They were separated in spite of the shared history and poetic connotations because they give a very different tonal impression, with ČAHARGAH being much brighter (reflected in the choice of “tennis-ball yellow” color, halfway between HIJAZ and MAHUR). However, the same difference is heard in the related flavor: NIKRIZ with a minor III sounds quite different from Neyrīz with the neutral III. By the same logic, Neyrīz should have been a separate flavor as well. Things are further complicated by Tunisian Rasd al-Dhīl, which is still considered a form of MUWWAL even though its III lies almost on the quarter-tone (even slightly underneath) in some tuning practices, in which case it becomes practically indistinguishable from Neyriz.
Tuning spectrum of the NIKRIZ/MUWWAL II-III interval
So, why is ČAHARGAH a separate flavor and Neyriz/Rasd al-Dhil isn’t? While Neyriz is indeed the main flavor in the Daramad of Dastgāh-e Homāyūn, in most other guše-hā, the tonal center shifts one tone above, into ČAHARGAH. On the other hand, most of Dastgāh-e Čahārgāh stays in ČAHARGAH. Therefore, it was decided that ČAHARGAH has a bigger claim to its own flavor than Neyriz, as it dominates two of the main seven Persian Dastgāhs and is sometimes heard in non-tempered performances of Maqom Dugoh of the Uzbek Šašmaqom.
Also, this seemed to be the only possible name for the flavor, as it is only really classified in Persian music and only by that name. This is somewhat unfortunate because its direct equivalent, Azerbaijani Çahargah, has been modernized into the flavor of HIJAZ, its close cognates Arabic Jihārkāh and Turkish Çargâh/Algerian Jārka are found in the flavors of RAST and MAHUR, respectively, while Uyghur Čārgāh has its own distinct flavor with the drifting tone on III (which we have named Eastern Čahargah, but classified as a form of HIJAZ because of the characteristic semitone between I-II).
ON COMPOUND FLAVORS:
HUSSEINI-NAWA and HIJAZ-ESFAHAN (as well as its Persian equivalent ČAHARGAH-ESFAHAN) center around the I, but by definition include the notes under it. From the Western theoretical point of view, these two compounds would be called “plagal natural” and “plagal harmonic minor” with a neutral VI.
SEGAH’s “true” (implied) tonal center is its low VI, and in most forms it is compounded with the (III-IV-V-VI) tetrachord, which can come in many flavors. Sometimes only the diminished IV is heard alongside the Segāh trichord for a while, before the ascent occurs (as is the case in Zābol Segāh), which then could also be seen as a form of SABA tetrachord.
NIKRIZ often exists in a co-dependent relationship with another flavor. In the mode of Hümâyun, it shares, and ultimately yields space to, HIJAZ; in other cases, the augmented IV is just a temporary excursion from the regular IV of a minor pentachord (Raml al-Māya). MUWWAL has a similar role in major Maghreb modes (Māya and Dhīl), as well as SABA with HUSSEINI (and sometimes NAWA). The instances in which these three flavors appear independently are much rarer than those in which they appear as temporary shifts within other flavors.
If all these issues were to be addressed, there would have to be an extended classification in which trichords, tetrachords, pentachords, dual-character pentachords (with the temporary augmentations of the IV), and compound tone groups (with the tonal center in the middle) are all counted separately, which would bring the total to around 30 flavors. For our current purpose, such an expansion seems unnecessary.
Comparisons
Several theory books give their classifications of ajnas/tetrachords, here is a table to compare all of them with the colors of the 12 flavor system.
Karl Signell gives Çargâh (MAHUR), Kürdî, Hicaz, Bûselik (NAWA), Uşşak (HUSSEINI), and Rast as the six main tetrachords of Turkish makam, followed by Sabâ, Segâh, Nikrîz, Pençgâh (MUWWAL), Hüzzam (close to ʿIraq), and Ferahnak (which could be seen as a brighter version of KURD) as six auxiliary tetrachords.
Habib Hassan Touma lists the eight main ajnas of Arabic maqam as Rāst, Bayātī (HUSSEINI), Sīkā (SEGAH), Nahāwand (NAWA), Ḥijāz, Nikrīz, ʿAjam (MAHUR), and Kurd, with Ṣabā mentioned not as an independent jins but as a form of Bayātī.
Salah el Mahdi gives the 12 ʿuqūd of Tunisian Maluf as Rāst (tuned closer to Arabic Rāst), Nahāwand (NAWA), Rāst al-Dhīl (NIKRIZ or Neyriz), Dhīl (tuned closer to Turkish Rast), Māhur, Bayātī (HUSSEINI), Ḥijāz, ʿIrāq (HUSSEINI tuned closer to Turkish Uşşak), Kurdī, Sīkā (SEGAH), ʿAjam (MAHUR on minor VII), and Mazmūm (MAHUR on IV).
Dariush Talai classifies the four main dang-hā as Šūr (HUSSEINI), Daštī (NAWA), Čahārgāh, and Māhur.
Zhou Ji gives the six main tetrachords of Uyghur Muqam only in Roman numerals: I (MAHUR), II (NAWA), III (KURD), IV (a jins not encountered in other theories, comprising 5:4 tone, 3:4 tone, and a semitone, with a drifting II), V (Eastern Rast), and VI (Eastern Čahārgāh).
This is a table showing the distribution of 12 flavors and their sub-groups across the regions considered a part of the maqam world, according to Maqam Study group criteria
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